Chapter 11 – Gehenna: A Synthesis

You have probably noticed by now that I like making lists. When I’m unsure of something, sometimes I make a list of what I know, or what I think I know. Our study of Gehenna has led to the following key insights.

• In the Old Testament the Valley of Hinnom referred to a physical valley outside of Jerusalem where wickedness occurred and divine judgment was threatened.
• In the New Testament the Hebrew word Gehinnom was transliterated as Gehenna.
• With one exception all the New Testament references to Gehenna are found on the lips of Jesus.
• Jesus used Gehenna primarily as a warning to his disciples.
• According to the book of Acts, the first Christian preachers didn’t warn outsiders about Gehenna.
• According to the New Testament letters, the first Christian authors didn’t warn believers about Gehenna. Moreover, there is only one reference to Gehenna in the Apostolic Fathers, which is a quote from Jesus.
• Philo and Josephus, prolific Jewish writers around the time of Jesus, didn’t mention an afterlife Gehenna. Josephus did mention the Romans throwing corpses into the valleys around Jerusalem.
• The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Septuagint don’t suggest an afterlife meaning for Gehenna.
• In some literature after Jesus, we have evidence for an afterlife Gehenna. This meaning becomes most prominent in the Mishnah.

So what’s going on here? When Jesus mentioned Gehenna was he referring to the afterlife like the rabbis in the Mishnah or was he referring to the physical valley like Jeremiah?

Jesus’ Comments

We have alternate data on both sides of the Gospels so how should we proceed? One way forward is to look at each reference and ask “antemortem?” or “postmortem?”^[i] Let’s give the texts a second look, but this time with the parallel texts placed together.

The Dangerous Words Passage

In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus says,

You have heard that it was said to the people long ago, ‘You shall not murder, and anyone who murders will be subject to judgment.’ But I tell you that anyone who is angry with a brother or sister will be subject to judgment. Again, anyone who says to a brother or sister, ‘Raca,’ is answerable to the court. And anyone who says, ‘You fool!’ will be in danger of the fire of hell [Gehenna]. (Matt 5:21–22)

These verses seem extreme because they offer no qualifications. If you call someone a fool, you are in major trouble. Yet in the same book Jesus calls the teachers of the law and Pharisees, “blind fools” (23:17). And Paul calls the Galatians foolish (Gal 3:1). Hence, the larger context reveals that these verses are likely using hyperbole, at least to some degree.

For this study, the most relevant phrases are “subject to judgment,” “answerable to the court,” and “in danger of the fire of Gehenna.” Some think these phrases show a progression in severity from “subject to judgment” to “in danger of the fire of Gehenna.” However, Craig Blomberg says, “given the close parallelism among the first clauses of each illustration, the entire sentence should probably be taken as largely synonymous.”[ii] Likewise, Craig Keener writes, “Jesus probably simply repeated the same concept in three different ways.”[iii] Synonymous parallelism can make sense of this passage, but it’s difficult to know for certain which is why both interpreters qualify their statements with the word “probably.”

To which court is Jesus referring when he said, “answerable to the court”? In Greek “the court” is literally a reference to the Sanhedrin as some versions make clear (see HCSB). This means that calling a person “Raca” or “emptyhead” or “idiot” (CEB) could lead to a trial before the Jewish supreme court. This points to an earthly setting.

However, the first phrase—”subject to judgment” for being angry with a brother or sister—may point to divine judgment. How so? As with all human courts, the Sanhedrin didn’t adjudicate cases of mere anger. Consequently, this may be referring to something other than legal trouble. However, if the idea of being angry implies that the anger is expressed, perhaps we are back to a human setting.

And that brings us to the warning about calling someone a fool leading to the danger of the fire of Gehenna. As you can see, our view of the previous phrases will influence our interpretation of the final warning. If the previous phrases are earthly warnings, and all three are synonymous, Gehenna must be an earthly or antemortem warning.

But taken at face value without adding any assumptions or implications, I think we have reason to see something more than an earthly setting in these verses, especially with the idea of anger leading to judgment. Moreover, since anger is a perpetual human issue—not merely something that was problematic from AD 30–70—these warnings carry significance far beyond Rome’s first-century invasion.

If this is correct, what does that mean for the reference to the Sanhedrin, a human court? Perhaps Jesus was thinking of the earthly court as an extension of the divine court when it pronounced verdicts with justice. The idea, then, would be mainly on divine judgment expressed through human authorities. Or maybe Jesus was simply using a metaphor to make his point: anger is dangerous and leads to serious consequences.

In these verses does Gehenna refer to divine judgment in the world to come or judgment in the form of the coming Roman conquest? This is a challenging passage so I cannot say with certainty, but I lean toward something more than mere human judgment.

The Dismemberment Passage

The command to cut off and throw away body parts is an especially striking Gehenna statement. It is found twice in Matthew and once in Mark.

If your right eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell [Gehenna]. And if your right hand causes you to stumble, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell [Gehenna]. (Matt 5:29–30)

If your hand or your foot causes you to stumble, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to enter life maimed or crippled than to have two hands or two feet and be thrown into eternal fire. And if your eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to enter life with one eye than to have two eyes and be thrown into the fire of hell [Gehenna]. (Matt 18:8–9)

If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life maimed than with two hands to go into hell [Gehenna], where the fire never goes out. And if your foot causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life crippled than to have two feet and be thrown into hell [Gehenna]. And if your eye causes you to stumble, pluck it out. It is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than to have two eyes and be thrown into hell [Gehenna], where “the worms that eat them do not die, and the fire is not quenched.” Everyone will be salted with fire. (Mk 9:43–49)

First, we should acknowledge the odd nature of these passages and the madness that results from a literal interpretation: Jesus is encouraging bodily mutilation—cutting off hands and feet and plucking out eyes. Should we interpret Jesus’ commands at face value? Would the one who taught and practiced nonviolence, the one who said, “love your neighbor as yourself,” command self-harm? I don’t think so and neither have almost all believers for the past two thousand years.

Many assume this text refers to the afterlife because they equate entering life or the kingdom of God with entering heaven and being thrown into Gehenna with being sent to hell. However, “the kingdom of God” is a complex reality. Jesus claimed that God’s kingdom had arrived during his ministry as demonstrated by his spiritual power (Matt 12:28), but he also commanded his followers to pray for God’s kingdom to come (Matt 6:10). So the kingdom is here and not here. This kingdom is also apparently invisible in some sense. In response to the Pharisees who asked when the kingdom of God would appear, Jesus said:

The coming of the kingdom of God is not something that can be observed, nor will people say, “Here it is,” or “There it is,” because the kingdom of God is in your midst. (Lk 17:20–21)

God’s kingdom, then, has already arrived and will arrive in the future. Since “the kingdom of God” contains present and future aspects and its coming cannot be observed, we should not assume that the “kingdom of God” in this passage must refer to  heaven.

Further, the phrase “where the fire never goes out” is literally “unquenchable fire.” The word “never” is not in the original language. It was added to convey the concept of “unquenchable” and we have seen that Israel’s prophets frequently mentioned “unquenchable fire” in the context of impending physical destruction (Is 1:31; Jer 7:20; Ezek 20:47­­–48; Am 5:6). So that phrase doesn’t require an afterlife interpretation.

We have also already discovered that the Isaiah quote at the end of the Mark passage refers to literal corpses surrounded by worms and fire. Is that our clue for how to interpret the entire section? Is Jesus talking about literal dead bodies? If so, what could entering life or entering the kingdom of God mean? Some argue that “enter life” was Jesus’ way of telling people to flee Jerusalem when the Roman army was on the horizon. After indicating the sign of impending destruction, Jesus said,

then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains. Let no one on the housetop go down to take anything out of the house. Let no one in the field go back to get their cloak. (Matt 24:16–18)

This makes some sense, but it’s hard for me to shake off the afterlife meaning when I ponder the phrases, “It is better for you to enter life . . .” and “It is better for you to enter the kingdom of God . . .” Maybe postmortem or afterlife are not the right words because the kingdom of God could fully arrive on earth before we die, but this sounds like something beyond this world as we know it.

Additionally, two details lead me to an unearthly interpretation. First, the idea of the wicked going into the “eternal fire” (Matt 18:8) is mentioned later in the same book. Jesus says that the Son of Man or King will sit on his throne and all nations will be separated before him into two groups. Those on his right will be welcomed into his kingdom because they served the needy, while those on his left will hear these words: “Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels” (Matt 25:41). Since this is a judgment scene with the wicked being sent to the “eternal fire,” it makes sense to associate the “eternal fire” in Matthew 18 with the same meaning: “It is better for you to enter life maimed or crippled than to have two hands or two feet and be thrown into eternal fire.” Being sent to the fire is also reminiscent of the verdict in Revelation 20: “Anyone whose name was not found written in the book of life was thrown into the lake of fire” (v. 15). And this is similar to 1 Enoch, where the wicked are cast into fiery valley or the “abyss of complete condemnation.”

Second, a main verb in these passages is “throw.” The startling commands to “cut off” and “pluck out” may cause us to miss the counterpart command: “gouge it out and throw it away . . . cut it off and throw it away” (Matt 5:29–30). Why do we need to “throw it away”? Because if we don’t, we may be “thrown” into Gehenna:

• “It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into Gehenna” (Matt 5:29),
• “It is better for you to enter life crippled than to have two feet and be thrown into Gehenna” (Mk 9:45),
• “It is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than to have two eyes and be thrown into Gehenna” (Mk 9:47).

Again, this detail reminds me of Revelation 20:15 where the wicked are “thrown” into the lake of fire and 1 Enoch, where the wicked are “cast” into the valley of fire.

On the one hand, then, when I read these passages with Isaiah in mind, I think Gehenna has an antemortem meaning. This applies particularly to Mark 9, which includes the Isaiah reference. On the other hand, when I read these statements with Matthew 25, Revelation 20, and 1 Enoch in mind, I think Gehenna has a postmortem meaning. Since I am more impressed with the latter observations, I think these statements, especially the ones in Matthew, refer to an afterlife Gehenna.

The Be Afraid Passage

The most repeated command in the Bible is “Fear not,” but this passage conveys the opposite command.

Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell [Gehenna]. (Matt 10:28)

But I will show you whom you should fear: Fear him who, after your body has been killed, has authority to throw you into hell [Gehenna]. Yes, I tell you, fear him. (Lk 12:5)

In chapter 4 we saw that “the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell [Gehenna]” is used by annihilationists to support the idea of ultimate destruction. If this interpretation is correct, Jesus definitely used Gehenna to refer to the afterlife. I should add that instead of saying that this destruction will happen, it says it can happen.

Could Matthew 10:28 be another example of Jesus referring to the impending devastation, forty years before the Roman conquest? Are there any elements in Jesus’ statement that can guide our understanding?

Intriguingly, the phrase “both soul and body” is found in Isaiah in the context of destruction:

And He will destroy the glory of his forest and of his fruitful garden, both soul and body, And it will be as when a sick man wastes away. (10:18 NASB)

Isaiah is threatening the arrogant king of Assyria with divine judgment. Assyrian warriors will experience a “wasting disease” (v. 16) and the king’s forest and “fruitful garden” or “fertile fields” will be destroyed (v. 18). In this verse the phrase “both soul and body” doesn’t indicate two independent entities. It indicates a totality, like the way we use “night and day” to mean all the time. For this reason, many translations of Isaiah 10:18 do not say “soul and body” but something like “completely destroy” (NIV).

If the original meaning of Gehenna governs our understanding of Matthew 10:28 along with this insight from Isaiah, Jesus’ words could be interpreted along these lines:

Fear him who has the power to throw you into the Valley of Hinnom without proper burial where your entire life (body and soul) will be burned up.[iv]

What kind of warning is that? A body exposed without proper burial is a great shame in any culture, but especially in first-century Israel.

Although this interpretation is possible, we must admit that it’s not popular. It does, however, have the advantage of emphasizing the original meaning of Gehenna, and it corresponds with historical events.

However, Luke’s statement moves me in the other direction:

But I will show you whom you should fear: Fear him who, after your body has been killed, has authority to throw you into hell [Gehenna]. Yes, I tell you, fear him. (12:5)

Instead of “destroy both soul and body in Gehenna” as in   Matthew, Luke has “after your body has been killed, has authority to throw you into Gehenna.” In chapter 2 we saw Luke’s tendency to highlight dualistic ideas. For example, Jesus told the man on the cross beside him, “today you will be with me in paradise” (Lk 23:43). There’s that “you” again in the same book, pointing to the same idea—continued existence after death. The man and Jesus would be together in a garden-like place after death. And we have the parable of Lazarus and the rich man in Luke 16, where both are conscious after death. Since “after your body has been killed” clearly refers to physical death, “has authority to throw you into Gehenna” is likely referring to the afterlife. Again, authority to do something and doing it are not the same thing.

In sum, Gehenna in Matthew 10:28 possibly refers to the afterlife, but Gehenna in Luke 12:5 probably refers to the afterlife. (These are not easy passages to interpret because of their context, which conveys God’s care for birds and his intimate care for us. Jesus says, “Don’t be afraid; you are worth more than many sparrows” (12:7). And yet that encouragement is preceded by “fear him” or “be afraid of the One.” Things seem so disjointed that some think Jesus is referring to the Roman Empire or perhaps even Satan who can bring destruction not God. However, it would be unprecedented for Jesus to command his followers to fear a human authority or Satan.)

The Child of Hell Passage

Jesus reserved his harshest words for the religious leaders of his day. In his condemnation of the Pharisees and teachers of the law, he says,

Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You travel over land and sea to win a single convert, and when you have succeeded, you make them twice as much a child of hell [Gehenna] as you are. (Matt 23:15)

You snakes! You brood of vipers! How will you escape being condemned to hell [Gehenna]? (v. 33)

“Child of Gehenna” is a general statement that doesn’t help us answer our main question. Likewise, “condemned to Gehenna” could be applied to the Roman invasion or afterlife punishment. However, three verses after the “condemned to Gehenna” comment, Jesus says, “Truly I tell you, all this will come on this generation” (v. 36). And we know the Roman conquest occurred within that time period. Hence, this Gehenna statement possibly refers to the physical valley which filled with corpses. However, since previous Gehenna comments in Matthew probably refer to the afterlife, I think the evidence could go either way. My conclusion for this final reference is uncertain.

Synthesis

In sum, I think the strongest verse for supporting an afterlife Gehenna is Luke 12:5, especially in light of Luke’s dualistic emphasis. Second, when connected with the “eternal fire” in Matthew 25:41, Matthew 18:8–9 provides solid support. Finally, since the Matthew 18 passage parallels Matthew 5:29–30, I view that as the third most convincing passage.

Admittedly, those who affirm a merely earthly Gehenna have an easier time explaining its absence in other literature. The argument is straightforward: It stopped being used as a threat after the threat became a reality and Jerusalem was destroyed in AD 70. In other words, it was something Jesus said during his lifetime to his Jewish audience in Israel. After the Roman invasion or outside the borders of Israel, it was no longer relevant.

So if Jesus used Gehenna in an afterlife sense, why did others not continue to use it that way? This is baffling to me. Here are a few possibilities.

• Afterlife Gehenna was primarily used in oral communication. Thus, we lack written records of this usage.
• Gehenna was used this way in writing, but we have lost these writings.
• Jesus’ audience didn’t understand what he was talking about when he mentioned Gehenna so they stopped using it.[v]
• Jesus didn’t actually use the word Gehenna. It was placed in his mouth by the Gospel authors.[vi]
• Gehenna was replaced with synonymous words and phrases.
• Since the Gehenna comments are mainly found in Matthew, Matthew believed that his particular audience would understand these references while other New Testament authors and subsequent authors did not have that same level of confidence with their intended audiences.

I think the last observation fits the data well, but perhaps the answer is a combination of these ideas. Whatever the cause for Gehenna’s diminishment in written sources, we still have good reasons to think it was used in the Gospels with an afterlife meaning in at least some cases.

Summary

In the New Testament, Gehenna was used almost exclusively by Jesus. Was he referring to the physical valley, where Israel’s destruction would be displayed or was he referring to an otherworldly fire? What best fits the data?

I think Jesus meant something beyond this world in at least three of his Gehenna references. However, that conclusion must be qualified. Key components of the traditional view of hell are still missing: “None of the . . . verses specifically mentions the duration of Gehenna.”[vii] And in most of the passages the purpose of Gehenna is debatable. Is it intended to annihilate or purify or preserve the wicked in pain forever?

Additionally, Jesus primarily uses Gehenna as a warning to his followers and those who considered themselves to be spiritual or religious. The Valley of Hinnom, then, stands as a caution to all of us because “everyone will be salted with fire” (Mk 9:49). Similarly, Paul says that God’s fire will test the quality of every believer’s work and some will be saved as though “escaping through the flames” (1 Cor 3:11–15).

We have finished exploring Gehenna. Now it’s time to descend into Hades.

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[i] I was encouraged to analyze each passage independently by reading Ian C. Cole, “The Quest for the Historical Jesus’ Use of Gehenna: A Critical Appraisal of the Work of N. T. Wright and His Portrayal of the Eschatology of the Historical Jesus” (2011). M.A. in Biblical Studies Theses. https://digitalcommons.olivet.edu/blit_mabs/1

[ii] Craig L. Blomberg, Matthew: The New American Commentary, Vol. 22 (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 1992), 107.

[iii] Craig S. Keener, A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 250.

[iv] For more detail on this interpretation see Bradley Jersak, Her Gates Will Never Be Shut: Hope, Hell, and the New Jerusalem (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2009), chap. 3 and Afterword by Nik Ansell. Also Perriman, chap. 8.

[v] The Gospels emphasize the disciples’ lack of understanding so this would not have been unusual.

[vi] This doesn’t make sense: Why would they place a difficult word in Jesus’ mouth that was not subsequently used by others? Were they trying to make Jesus especially confusing to their literary audiences?

[vii] Quoted in Thiselton, 152. From the Evangelical Alliance report The Nature of Hell.